Teaching Media Chapter 2


TECHNOLOGIES FOR LEARNING


            Technologies for learning combat boredom by providing a change of pace from lecture and seatwork and by adding motivational features that excite learner interest. They also provide a means for individualizing instructio to a greater degree. Some of the technologies discussed in this chapter are specially designed as independent study methods, allowing individuals to progress at their own pace. Others are designed to be used in small groups; as such, they enlist the energies of studets to assist those who need extra explanation, coaching, and practice.

Organization of this chapter.
Virtually all of these technologies for learning originated and evolved before computers were widely available on the educational scene, so they are not dependent on computers for implementation. However, each can be transformed into a computer-mediated form. We will discuss these transformations in conjunction with each technology.


COOPERATIVE LEARNING
            Cooperative learning involves small heterogeneous groups of students working together to achieve a common academic goal or task while working together to learn collabolaration and social skills.
Advantages.
  • ·         Active Learning
  • ·         Social Skills
  • ·         Interdependence
  • ·         Individual accountability

Limitations.
  • ·         Student compatibility
  • ·         Student dependency
  • ·         Time concuming
  • ·         Individualists
  • ·         Logistical obtacles

Integration.
            Students can learn cooperatively not only by being taught with materials but also by producing mataerials themselves. For example, elementary students can work together to design and produce a videotape or a PowerPoint presentation on a topic related to historical content being studied.

Learning Together Model.
            Johnson and Johnson’s interdependent learning group, known as the Learning Together model, requir four basic elements:
1.      Positive interdependence.
2.      Face to face helping interaction.
3.      Individual accountability.
4.      Teaching interpersonal and small-group skills.

Team-Assisted Individualization (TAI)
            TAI was specifically intended to avoid some of the problems encountered with individualized programmed instruction. TAI follows this pattern:
1.      Teaching groups.
2.      Team formation.
3.      Self-instructional materials.
4.      Team study.
5.      Team scores and team recognition.

Computer-Based Cooperative Learning.
            Computer assistance can alleviate some of the logistical obstacles to using cooperative learning methods, paricularly the tasks of managing information, allocating different individual reponsibilities, presenting and monitoring instructional material, analyzing learner responses, administering test, and scoring and providing remediation for those tests.


GAMES
            The terms game, simulation, and silumation game are often used interchangeably. But because these terms have different meanings, we will discuss them separately here. A game is an activityin which participants follow prescribed rules that differ from those of real life as they strive to attain a challenging goal.
            Games can incorporate the common features of behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, and social psychology. Students enjoy actively participating in games. Games provide the opportunity to practice content e.g., math facts, vocabulary, and problem solving skills.
Advantages.
  • ·         Attractive.
  • ·         Novel.
  • ·         Atmosphere.
  • ·         Time on task.

Limitations.
  • ·         Competition.
  • ·         Distraction.
  • ·         Poor Design.

Integration.
  • ·         Attainment of cognitive objectives.
  • ·         Adding motivation to topics.
  • ·         Small-group instruction.
  • ·         Basic skills.
  • ·         Vocabulary building.

Adapting the Content of Instructional Games.
  • ·        Safety tic-tac-toe.
  • ·        Spelling rummy.
  • ·        Reading concentration.
  • ·        Word bingo.



SIMULATIONS
            A simulation is an abstraction or simplication of some real-life situation or process. In simulations, participants usually play a role that involves them in interactions with other people or with elements of the simulated environment. Simulations can very greatly in the extent to which they fully reflect the realities of the situation they are intended to model.

Simulation and Problem-Based Learning.
            One particular balue of simulation is that it implements the problem-based learning method as directly and cearly possible. In problem-based learning, the learner is led toward understanding principles through grappling with a problem situation. Most simulations attempt to immerse participants in a problem.

Simulators.
            Competencies in the motor skill domain require practice under conditions of high feedback, which gives learners the feel of the action. Although it might be ideal to pratice such skills under real-life conditions, some can be praticed much more safely and conveniently by means of simulated conditions. The device employed to represent a physical system in a scaled-down form is referred to as a simulator.
Advantages.
  • ·         Realistic.
  • ·         Safe.
  • ·         Simplified.

Limitations.
  • ·         Time consuming.
  • ·         Oversimplification.

Integration.
  • ·         Training in motor skills.
  • ·         Instruction in social interaction and human relations.
  • ·         Development of decision-making skills microteaching in teacher making skills.

Role Plays.
            Role play refers to a type of simulation in which the dominant feature is relatively open-ended interaction among people. In essence, a role play asks someone to imagine that she is another person or is in a particular situation; the person then behaves as the other person would or in the way the situation seems to demand. The purpose is to learn something about the dynamics of an unfamiliar situation.


SIMULATION GAMES
            A simulation game combines the attributes of a simulation with the attributes of game. Like a simulation, it may be relatively high or low in its modeling of reality. Like a game, it may or may not entail competition.

Integration.
            Instructional simulation games are found in curriculum applications that require both the repetitive skill practice associated with games and the reality context associated with simulations. Societal processes, cultural conflits, historical eras, and ecological systems are popular topcs.

Cooperative Simulation Games.
            The computer has opened up even wider possibilities for simulating problem situations elaborately. A number of development groups have made computer-based simulations that challenge participants to work together a mystery.


LEARNING CENTERS
            Another technology for learning, the learning center, is a self-contained environment designed to promote individual or small-group learning around a specific task. A learning center may be as simple as a table and some chairs around which students discuss, or it may be as sophisticated as severak networked computers used by a group for collaborative research and problem solving.
Advantages.
  • ·         Self-pacing.
  • ·         Active learning.
  • ·         Teacher role.

Limitations.
  • ·         Cost.
  • ·         Management.
  • ·         Student responsibility.
  • ·         Student isolation.

Integration.
Skill Centers.
Interest Centers.
Remedial Centers.
Enrichment Centers.


PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION
            Programmed instruction was chronologically the first technology for learning and is an explicit application of principles of learning theory-operant conditioning or reinforcement theory.
Advantages.
  • ·         Self-pacing.
  • ·         Practice and feedback.
  • ·         Reliable.
  • ·         Effective.

Limitations.
  • ·         Program design,
  • ·         Tedious.
  • ·         Lack of social interaction.

Integration.
            Programmed materials have been used successfully from the elementary school through the adult education level and in almost every subject area.


PROGRAMMED TUTORING
            Programmed tutoring is a one to one method of instruction in which the tutor’s responses are programmed in advance in the form of carefully structured printed in structions. In a typical program the tutor and student go through the lesson material together.
Advantages.
  • ·         Self-pacing.
  • ·         Practice and feedback.
  • ·         Reliable.
  • ·         Effective.

Limitations.
  • ·         Labor intensive.
  • ·         Development cost.

Integration.
            Reading and mathematics have been by far the most popular subjects for tutoring. Being basic skills and highly structured by nature, these subjects lend themselves well to this approach. Remedial instruction is a typical application of tutoring programs.


PROGRAMMED TEACHING
          Programmed teaching, also known as direct instruction, is an attempt to apply the principles of programmed instruction in a large group setting. In this approach, a whole calass is broken into smaller groups of 5 to 10 students.
            Programmed teaching is seen by its proponents as a total system for organizing classroom istruction. However, in North America it has been adapted for use as one component of a whole group classroom setting.


PERSONALIZED SYSTEM OF INSTRUCTION
            PSI differs from the whole class application of matery learning in that it adheres to the notion of using individual self-study as the main form of learning activity.
Advantages.
  • ·         Self-pacing.
  • ·         Mastery.
  • ·         Effective.

Limitations.
  • ·         Development cost.
  • ·         Behaviorist commitment.
  • ·         Self-discipline.

Integration.
            This technology for learning has been applied most frequently to postsecondary education, particularly at the community college level.

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